Other studies used delivering an aversive stimulus, for example a loud noise, as their measure of aggression. In the sport context, aggression has been measured in a variety of ways, such as number of fouls, coach ratings, penalty records, as well as using self-reports and behavioral observation.
In studies of behavioral observation, instrumental and hostile aggression have been measured. Instrumental aggression has been operationally defined as aggression occurring during game play and involves opponent-directed physical interactions that contribute to accomplishing a task.
In contrast, hostile aggression has been operationally defined as physical or verbal interactions aimed at various targets but not directly connected to task accomplishment; these behaviors are directed at opponents, teammates, or referees. For example, in handball, repelling, hitting, and cheating have been coded as instrumental aggression, and insulting, threatening, making obscene gestures, and shoving against opponents, referees, teammates, and others have been coded as hostile aggression.
Aggressive behaviors e. Other studies have used athlete self-reports to measure aggression, either by presenting them with a scenario that describes an aggressive behavior and asking about their intentions or likelihood to aggress, or by asking them to respond to a number of items measuring aggressive or antisocial behavior. Self-described likelihood to aggress has been used as a proxy for aggression.
In these studies, participants are presented with a scenario in which the protagonist is faced with a decision to harm the opponent to prevent scoring and they are asked to indicate the likelihood they would engage in this behavior if they were in this situation. Finally, aggression e. Aggression has a long history in both mainstream psychology and sport psychology.
One view is that aggression results from frustration. In sport, frustration can occur for a variety of reasons: because of losing, not playing well, being hurt, and perceiving unfairness in the competition.
Contextual factors come into play so that the manner in which an individual interprets the situational cues at hand best predicts whether this athlete, or spectator, will exhibit aggression. Situation-related expectancies, such as the time of game, score opposition, or the encouragement of the crowd, also influence the athlete in terms of whether this is deemed an appropriate time to exhibit aggression.
A number of individual difference factors have been associated with aggression. Losing teams are seen to have signifcently heightened aggression levels when compared to their winning opponents. Generally the lower a team falls in a league standing point the greater the level of aggression shown.
In multiple-period play sports it has been shown that incidence of aggressive behaviour increases over the course of the game. Whilst the lowest number of incidents occur in the first period. If coaches, parents, managers and athletes want to control aggression it is within their power to do so.
Unfortunately not all aggression is discouraged. In some environments coaches have been known to applaud aggressive rule breaking behaviour in the belief it increases ticket sales and adds an element of fear to opposing teams who make the visit.
Sadly such behaviour at a high level has a tendency to filter down to lower levels and to youth development. Poor behaviour by a sporting icon breeds a culture of aggression. It is vital for coaches, managers, parents and athletes to consider the following best practices:. There are a number of ways rowdy and aggressive behaviour by spectators can be curtailed at sporting events which can be considered. Is playing at home an advantage in sports?
The table right showcases home court win percentages across major US sporting leagues with Major League Baseball figures since although NFL figures are only from and require further year on year analysis to clarify strength. Arguably the most plausible explanation for the home court advantage in sports has to be that of a supportive audience. Could a supportive audience energise the home team?
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Statistics 31 — Low self-control, peer delinquency and aggression among adolescents in malaysia. Asian Soc. This research can prove very important for psychologists and how they help these players deal with these stressors.
In elite sport the main type of stress that has been studied is organisational stress. Woodman and Hardy investigated organisational stress in elite athletes and they found that there were four main stress issues, which were personal, team, leadership and environmental. Within team issues a large factor that caused stress was tension among athletes.
Fletcher and Hanton conducted a similar study looking at organisational stress and they found that the coach athlete tension was a large contributing factor. Therefore strict coaching and negative feedback can affect performance in many ways.
Learning how to deal with stresss is key as players must find ways to overcome these problems. In sport psychology, little research has been focused on the coping processes of elite players.
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