The most important regional development of the Mubarak era was the Iran-Iraq War, which took place between and During this period, Egypt supported Iraq militarily and economically against Iran.
During the term of Saddam Hussein, nearly one million Egyptian citizens were working in Iraq, which was a highly developed country at that time. Due to the increasing normalization and its importance that cannot be ignored, Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League in The strict security measures and surveillance and inspection methods Mubarak, who survived numerous assassination attempts, used had effect on this. His own military career and assassination of his successor Sadat, as well as his fear of his own people, played an important role in this security-oriented approach.
So much so that there is not even a photograph of Mubarak taken in public. The pictures were always taken in controlled and high-security environments. Unlike Sadat, Mubarak did not appoint a vice president, as he might have feared a coup in palace during his year rule. In the s, Mubarak's Egypt played a serious role in shaping the new Middle East by capturing significant opportunities in the post-Cold War era. The most important of them was the Gulf War against Hussein's invasion of Kuwait. Egyptian troops were among the first to reach Saudi Arabia as part of the Allied Forces.
Egypt received financial aid from Gulf states during and after the war, and the U. Saddam's losing power weakened the anti-Western nationalist camp in the Arab world and brought the Westerner camp to prominence. Despite the rivalry between him and Hussein, unlike the Gulf states, Mubarak opposed the invasion of Iraq in , saying the Palestinian issue must be solved first.
It was the first time he run against an opponent in the presidential election, and he won the election with security measures. By Nadine Awadalla , Omar Fahmy. He died in intensive care a few weeks after undergoing surgery.
Three days of public mourning were declared and state television played clips of Mubarak with a black ribbon at the corner of the screen. He was sentenced to life in prison for conspiring to murder demonstrators during the day revolt, but was freed in after being cleared of the charges.
In the later years of his presidency, Mubarak was given credit for economic reforms that successfully raised overall growth and investment. Ultimately, a sense of economic injustice helped create the conditions for the day uprising that unseated Mubarak.
There was also anger over the brutality of security services and at undemocratic practices including the president's assumed plan to hand power to his son.
There had been very different hopes for Mubarak when he became president in after Islamist gunmen assassinated his predecessor, Anwar al-Sadat. According to historian Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, the former air force commander and vice-president was known for "efficiency and his no-nonsense approach to work".
His government fixed infrastructure and provided new roads, sewage facilities and telephone circuits. It solved the problem of bread subsidies, which had previously caused riots, with a reduction in the size of loaves. Although he kept emergency laws, more than 1, political prisoners from all factions, jailed under Sadat, were freed. Many restrictions on freedom of speech were lifted. General elections saw greater openness.
More political parties formed and the Muslim Brotherhood was able to contest elections in and with its members running as independents. However the president still chose the prime minister and the entire cabinet was answerable to him. While Mubarak tried to reverse the tide of Islamic extremism, under his rule the problem continued to grow. Militant groups such as al-Jihad and Gamaat al-Islamiyah Islamic Group , which co-ordinated Sadat's assassination, were targeted in a clampdown.
Many thousands of Egyptians were arrested during waves of violence in the s. At the same time the government tried to divide the Islamic mainstream from the extremists. Then came the summer and autumn of fury, during which Sadat ordered the arrests of his political opponents. A few months later, Sadat was assassinated. Sitting next to him as the attack unfolded was Vice President Mubarak, who escaped with only a minor injury to his hand.
He had seen up close how the political turbulence, change, and rapid reversals of the previous eras could render Egypt vulnerable, mostly to itself, and was thus determined to steer a middle ground between the excitement and tumult that characterized the Nasser and Sadat years in order to achieve his cherished goals. Looking back, it is hard to deny how successful he was at both.
By the time the military pushed Mubarak from office in February , Egyptian life expectancy had reached developed-world levels. During his presidency, birth and infant mortality rates had dropped significantly, while childhood immunization rates for tuberculosis; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus; hepatitis B; measles; and polio were in the 96 to 98 percent range.
When Mubarak took the oath of office in October , they had been roughly half that. Literacy had improved markedly, but not enough, and the percentage of the population working in agriculture fell from approximately 40 to 30 percent. Although the level of industrial employment remained steady, the number of workers in the services sector increased significantly.
Of course, these socioeconomic indicators are illustrative, but they and others belie the conventional view that the Mubarak era was one of stagnation and decay. That is a popular—even understandable—narrative about Egypt, especially in the years before the January uprising, but it is greatly skewed. During his long tenure, Mubarak is reported to have often told interlocutors that he knew Egypt better than anyone else.
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